A friendly, self-paced manual to 26 logical fallacies, the sneaky reasoning errors that make a weak argument sound strong. Clear definitions, honest comparisons, and a quick quiz after every one.
Nine of the fallacies you’ll meet most often, online, in adverts, and in debates.
Before we begin
What is a logical fallacy?
A logical fallacy is a flaw in reasoning, a mistake in how an argument is built that makes it unreliable, even when it sounds convincing.
A fallacy is not the same as being wrong. You can reach a true conclusion through a fallacy, and a false one through flawless logic. What matters here is the move, the step that doesn’t actually support the point. Learning to name these moves does two things: it stops you being fooled by a slick argument, and it stops you leaning on weak ones yourself. That is the heart of critical thinking.
Fallacies turn up everywhere: in adverts, in politics, in comment sections, and in ordinary disagreements. Once you can spot a straw man or a false dilemma, you start seeing them daily, and your own writing and debating get sharper for it.
Formal and informal fallacies
Logicians sort fallacies into two big families: formal and informal.
Formal fallacies break the structure of an argument. The logical form itself is invalid, so the conclusion doesn’t follow no matter what the argument is about.Informal fallacies keep a form that looks fine, but the content, relevance, or language is faulty, a distraction, a loaded word, or a leap the evidence doesn’t justify.
Almost every fallacy you meet in daily life, and all 26 in this guide, is informal. To keep them memorable, we sort them into five families by the trick each one pulls, so the look-alikes sit side by side. One quick warning about language: to “beg the question” is a specific fallacy (assuming what you set out to prove), it does not mean “raise the question,” however often you hear it used that way.
How to use this page
Take the check-up first. Five quick questions below show what you already spot. Every answer explains itself, so it teaches as you go.
Work through the 26. They’re grouped into five families by the trick they use. Read the definition, the example, and the “don’t mix it up” note, then try the quick check under each one.
Sit the final test. Twelve mixed questions at the end show how sharp your eye has become.
Keep the cheat sheet. Download the one-page summary to revise before an exam or a debate.
Diagnostic check-up · 5 questions
Can you spot the flaw?
No score to worry about. Pick an answer and the box explains why it’s right, wrong guesses teach you just as much. Then press the button to see how many you caught.
1“You can’t trust his argument about taxes, he’s been in prison.” Which fallacy?
It attacks the man, not his tax argument, ad hominem. His past doesn’t make his point wrong.
2“Everyone is buying this phone, so it must be the best one.” Which fallacy?
Popularity is treated as proof of quality, the bandwagon fallacy. Lots of buyers doesn’t mean best.
3“Either you support this plan completely, or you hate progress.” Which fallacy?
Only two options are offered when many exist, a false dilemma (black-and-white thinking).
4“I wore my lucky jersey and we won, so the jersey caused the win.” Which fallacy?
Two things happening in order doesn’t mean one caused the other, false cause (post hoc).
5“Have you stopped copying other people’s homework?” This question is a…
Either answer admits you copied, the assumption is baked in. That is a loaded question.
The 26, grouped by the trick
Five families of fallacies
Fallacies are easier to remember when you sort them by the trick they pull rather than by alphabet. Tap any family to jump straight to it.
Fallacies that go after the arguer, or duck the question, instead of answering it.
Informal · relevance
01
Ad Hominem
Attacking the person making an argument instead of the argument itself. Whether someone is likeable has nothing to do with whether their point is correct.
Example“You can’t trust her views on the budget, she’s been divorced twice.”
Don’t mix it upDon’t confuse it with Tu Quoque, which is a specific ad hominem that accuses the other person of hypocrisy.
Quick check Choose the correct one
Which is an ad hominem?
Dismissing him because he “failed maths” attacks the person, not the argument, that is ad hominem.
02
Tu Quoque
Latin for “you too.” Rejecting criticism by pointing out that the critic is a hypocrite, rather than answering the criticism.
Example“You tell me to quit smoking, but you smoke too, so your advice is worthless!”
Don’t mix it upA sub-type of Ad Hominem. Ad hominem attacks the person in any way; tu quoque specifically cries “hypocrite.”
Quick check True / False
True or False: “You say I should save money, but you’re in debt yourself!” is tu quoque.
True. It dodges the advice by calling the adviser a hypocrite, that is tu quoque.
03
Straw Man
Misrepresenting or exaggerating someone’s argument into a weaker version, then knocking that fake version down.
Example“You want more break time? So you think students should just play all day and never learn?”
Don’t mix it upA Red Herring changes the subject entirely; a straw man distorts the actual argument before attacking it.
Quick check Choose the correct one
What does a straw man do?
A straw man rebuilds the opponent’s point as something weaker and easier to beat, then attacks that.
04
Red Herring
Introducing an irrelevant point to distract from the real issue and lead the discussion off track.
Example“Why worry about my late homework when there are far bigger problems in the world?”
Don’t mix it upA Straw Man twists your argument; a red herring drops in a brand-new, unrelated topic to change the subject.
Quick check True / False
True or False: A red herring stays tightly focused on the original question.
False. A red herring does the opposite, it drags in something irrelevant to pull attention away from the question.
05
Genetic Fallacy
Judging a claim as true or false based on where it came from, its source or origin, instead of its actual merits.
Example“That idea came from a tabloid, so it must be nonsense.”
Don’t mix it upClose to Ad Hominem, but genetic fallacy attacks the origin of a claim (a newspaper, a group, a history) rather than a specific person.
Quick check Choose the correct one
Which is the genetic fallacy?
Rejecting a claim purely because of its source (Wikipedia) rather than its content is the genetic fallacy.
Group 2 · Fallacies 6–11
Appeals to Emotion & the Crowd
Fallacies that push feelings, fear, or popularity in place of reasons.
Informal · emotion
06
Appeal to Emotion
Trying to win an argument by stirring up strong feelings instead of offering evidence or reasons.
Example“Think how heartbroken your family would be if you didn’t become a doctor.”
Don’t mix it upAppeal to Pity and Appeal to Fear are specific versions of this, using sympathy or fear in particular.
Quick check True / False
True or False: Appeal to emotion replaces evidence with feelings.
True. It substitutes an emotional pull for actual reasons, that swap is the fallacy.
07
Appeal to Fear
Using threats or frightening consequences to win support, instead of giving real reasons. Sometimes called scare tactics.
Example“If this rule passes, chaos will follow and no one will be safe, so vote no.”
Don’t mix it upA Slippery Slope predicts a specific chain of events; appeal to fear simply weaponises dread to pressure you.
Quick check Choose the correct one
Which is an appeal to fear?
Pressuring you with danger instead of reasons is an appeal to fear.
08
Appeal to Pity
Trying to win agreement by making people feel sorry for you, rather than by proving your point.
Example“I know I copied the essay, but I’ll fail the year and my parents will be crushed, please pass me.”
Don’t mix it upA specific Appeal to Emotion. Pity targets sympathy in particular; the broader fallacy can use any feeling.
Quick check True / False
True or False: “Give me the job, I really need the money” is an appeal to pity.
True. It asks for the job on sympathy, not on suitability, an appeal to pity.
09
Bandwagon
Arguing that something is true, right, or good simply because many people believe it or do it. Also called appeal to popularity.
Example“Everyone’s buying this coin, so it must be a smart investment.”
Don’t mix it upAppeal to Authority leans on one expert; bandwagon leans on the crowd. Popularity and truth are not the same thing.
Quick check Choose the correct one
Which is the bandwagon fallacy?
“Millions use it, so it’s best” treats popularity as proof, that is the bandwagon fallacy.
10
Appeal to Authority
Claiming something is true just because an authority says so, especially an authority who is not actually an expert on the topic.
Example“A famous actor endorses this diet pill, so it must work.”
Don’t mix it upUnlike Bandwagon (the crowd), this leans on a single figure. Note: citing a genuine, relevant expert is not a fallacy.
Quick check True / False
True or False: Quoting a qualified climate scientist on climate is always a fallacy.
False. Citing a real, relevant expert is reasonable. The fallacy is trusting an authority who is famous but unqualified on the topic.
11
Appeal to Tradition
Arguing that something is right or better simply because it has always been done that way.
Example“We’ve always marked exams on paper, so there’s no reason to change.”
Don’t mix it upBandwagon says “lots of people do it now”; appeal to tradition says “we’ve always done it.” Age is not proof of value.
Quick check Choose the correct one
Which is an appeal to tradition?
“It’s always been done this way” treats age as proof of worth, the appeal to tradition.
Group 3 · Fallacies 12–16
Loaded Assumptions
Fallacies that smuggle an unproven idea in and build on top of it.
Informal · presumption
12
Begging the Question
Assuming the very thing you are trying to prove, the argument goes in a circle, with the conclusion hidden inside the premise.
Example“This book tells the truth because it says right here that everything in it is true.”
Don’t mix it upA Loaded Question hides an assumption inside a question; begging the question hides it inside an argument. (Note: “begs the question” does not mean “raises the question.”)
Quick check True / False
True or False: Circular reasoning and begging the question describe the same error.
True. Both name an argument that assumes its own conclusion, the reasoning loops back on itself.
13
Loaded Question
Asking a question that has an unproven assumption built in, so that any direct answer traps you into accepting it.
Example“Have you stopped cheating on your tests?” (Either answer admits you cheated.)
Don’t mix it upBegging the Question is a circular argument; a loaded question smuggles the assumption into a question.
Quick check Choose the correct one
Which is a loaded question?
“Why are you always so lazy?” assumes you are lazy before you answer, a loaded question.
14
False Dilemma
Presenting only two options as if they were the only ones, when in fact more choices exist. Also called either/or or black-and-white thinking.
Example“Either we ban phones completely, or grades will collapse.”
Don’t mix it upA Middle Ground fallacy wrongly assumes the truth is halfway between two views; a false dilemma wrongly assumes there are only two views to begin with.
Quick check True / False
True or False: “You’re either with us or against us” is a false dilemma.
True. It offers only two options when many positions are possible, a false dilemma.
15
Middle Ground
Assuming that the truth must lie halfway between two opposing positions, just because it is the compromise. Also called the fallacy of moderation.
Example“One expert says the bridge is safe, one says it will collapse, so it’s probably a little bit dangerous.”
Don’t mix it upA False Dilemma says there are only two options; the middle ground insists the midpoint of two options is automatically correct.
Quick check Choose the correct one
Which is the middle-ground fallacy?
Assuming the answer must sit halfway between two claims, regardless of evidence, is the middle-ground fallacy.
16
No True Scotsman
Protecting a sweeping claim by redefining it on the spot, so any counterexample is dismissed as “not a real” case.
Example“No Scotsman puts sugar on porridge.” “My uncle does.” “Well, no true Scotsman would.”
Don’t mix it upUnlike an honest correction, this changes the definition purely to avoid being proven wrong, a cousin of circular reasoning.
Quick check True / False
True or False: The “No True Scotsman” move keeps a claim safe by re-defining its terms.
True. It shifts the definition to shrug off any counterexample, so the original claim can never be disproven.
Group 4 · Fallacies 17–22
Jumping to Conclusions
Fallacies that race from thin evidence to a big claim, especially about cause.
Informal · weak evidence
17
Hasty Generalization
Drawing a broad conclusion from too few examples or a sample that is too small or unusual.
Example“I met two rude people from that town, so everyone there is rude.”
Don’t mix it upAnecdotal Evidence leans on one vivid story; hasty generalization leaps from a handful of cases to a sweeping rule.
Quick check Choose the correct one
Which is a hasty generalization?
Concluding “everyone will” from just two friends is far too few cases, a hasty generalization.
18
Anecdotal Evidence
Using a single personal story or isolated example as if it outweighs solid, wide-ranging evidence.
Example“My grandad smoked his whole life and lived to 95, so smoking isn’t harmful.”
Don’t mix it upA Hasty Generalization jumps from a few cases to a rule; the anecdotal fallacy pits one memorable story against the data.
Quick check True / False
True or False: One dramatic personal story can safely overturn large-scale evidence.
False. Trusting a single story over solid data is exactly the anecdotal fallacy.
19
False Cause
Assuming that because one thing followed another, the first must have caused the second. Its Latin name is post hoc ergo propter hoc.
Example“I wore my lucky socks and we won, so the socks caused the win.”
Don’t mix it upA Slippery Slope predicts a future chain of causes; false cause wrongly reads cause into two things that merely happened in order.
Quick check Choose the correct one
Which is a false-cause (post hoc) error?
The rooster crowing before sunrise doesn’t cause it, treating ‘after this’ as ‘because of this’ is false cause.
20
Slippery Slope
Claiming that one small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of increasingly extreme consequences, with no evidence for the chain.
Example“If we let students redo one test, soon they’ll redo everything and standards will vanish.”
Don’t mix it upFalse Cause links two past events; a slippery slope predicts an unstoppable future domino-run of events.
Quick check True / False
True or False: A slippery slope assumes one step must trigger a chain of extreme outcomes.
True. It treats a modest first step as the unstoppable start of a disastrous chain, without proving that chain.
21
Appeal to Ignorance
Claiming something is true simply because it hasn’t been proven false, or false because it hasn’t been proven true.
Example“No one has proved aliens don’t exist, so they must be out there.”
Don’t mix it upUnlike a fair claim about the burden of proof, this treats a lack of evidence as if it were evidence itself.
Quick check Choose the correct one
Which is an appeal to ignorance?
“You can’t prove it false, so it’s true” turns missing evidence into proof, the appeal to ignorance.
22
Gambler’s Fallacy
Believing that past results in a random process change the odds of the next independent event.
Example“The coin landed heads five times in a row, so tails is due.”
Don’t mix it upFalse Cause invents a cause between events; the gambler’s fallacy misjudges probability, treating independent events as if they were linked.
Quick check True / False
True or False: After four reds on a fair roulette wheel, black is more likely next.
False. Each spin is independent, so the odds don’t change. Thinking otherwise is the gambler’s fallacy.
Group 5 · Fallacies 23–26
Slippery Words & Faulty Logic
Fallacies that trade on double meanings or the part-and-whole muddle.
Informal · ambiguity
23
Equivocation
Using a single word in two different senses within an argument, sliding between the meanings to mislead.
Example“A feather is light; what is light cannot be dark; so a feather cannot be dark.”
Don’t mix it upA Straw Man misrepresents a whole argument; equivocation exploits the double meaning of one word.
Quick check Choose the correct one
Equivocation works by…
Equivocation shifts a word’s meaning partway through, so the argument only seems to hold together.
24
Composition
Assuming that what is true of the individual parts must be true of the whole they make up.
Example“Every player is the best in their position, so the team must be the best.”
Don’t mix it upThe exact reverse of Division. Composition argues parts → whole; division argues whole → parts.
Quick check True / False
True or False: “Each brick is light, so the whole wall is light” is a fallacy of composition.
True. What’s true of each brick need not be true of the whole wall, that is the fallacy of composition.
25
Division
Assuming that what is true of the whole must be true of each of its parts.
Example“Our school is the top-ranked, so every student here must be top of the class.”
Don’t mix it upThe exact reverse of Composition. Division argues whole → parts; composition argues parts → whole.
Quick check Choose the correct one
Which is the fallacy of division?
Assuming every player is great because the team is great applies the whole’s trait to each part, the fallacy of division.
26
Sunk Cost
Continuing with something only because of the time, money, or effort already spent, rather than because it is still worth doing.
Example“I’ve already spent three years on a course I hate, so I have to finish it.”
Don’t mix it upLike the Gambler’s Fallacy, it misreads the past: both ignore what is actually the rational choice going forward.
Quick check True / False
True or False: Finishing a bad film only because you paid for the ticket is the sunk-cost fallacy.
True. The money is already gone whatever you do; staying purely because you paid is the sunk-cost fallacy.
Final assessment · 12 questions
How sharp is your eye now?
A mixed test drawn from all five families: name the fallacy, spot the odd one out, and tell apart the tricky look-alikes. Answer every question, then press for your score and a short verdict.
1“You say I should recycle, but you drive a huge petrol car!” Which fallacy?
It dodges the point by calling the speaker a hypocrite — tu quoque.
2Which fallacy misrepresents someone’s argument to make it easier to attack?
Distorting the argument into a weaker version is the straw man.
3“No one has proven ghosts aren’t real, so they must exist.” Which fallacy?
Lack of disproof is treated as proof — the appeal to ignorance.
4True or False: Citing a qualified expert speaking in their own field is always a fallacy.
False. Only an irrelevant or unqualified authority makes it a fallacy; genuine expertise is fair evidence.
5“We’ve always done registration on paper, so we shouldn’t change it.” Which fallacy?
Treating “we’ve always done it” as proof of worth is the appeal to tradition.
6“If we allow one late essay, soon no one will meet any deadline ever.” Which fallacy?
A small step is treated as the start of an unstoppable chain — a slippery slope.
7Which two fallacies are exact opposites of each other?
Composition (parts → whole) and Division (whole → parts) are mirror images.
8“The choir is the best in the country, so every single singer must be the best.”
Applying the whole’s quality to each member is the fallacy of division.
9“The dice landed on six three times, so it can’t possibly land on six again.”
Each roll is independent; past rolls don’t change the odds. That is the gambler’s fallacy.
10“I’ve already spent so much on this project, I can’t quit now.” Which fallacy?
Continuing only because of past spending, not future value, is the sunk-cost fallacy.
11“That claim came from a gossip website, so it’s automatically false.” Which fallacy?
Judging a claim purely by its source rather than its content is the genetic fallacy.
12“Think how devastated your coach will be if you quit the team” (with no other reason). Which fallacy?
Swapping evidence for an emotional tug is an appeal to emotion.
Take it with you
Downloads & practice
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Logical Fallacies, One-Page Cheat Sheet
All 26 fallacies, grouped by function, with a one-line definition and example each · PDF
The practice buttons open Kahoot and Quizlet, the specific sets go live once they’re published. A Word (.doc) copy of the cheat sheet can be added on request; the PDF above prints cleanly onto two sides of A4.
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The definitions here follow standard usage in critical-thinking and philosophy teaching. For more examples, deeper theory, or classroom activities, these well-regarded resources are a good next stop:
Critical-thinking texts sometimes name or group fallacies slightly differently. Where usage varies, this guide follows the common school-level convention and notes the trickier cases.
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Thapa, T. (2026). Logical Fallacies: A Good Learner guide to 26 logical fallacies. The Good Learner Project. https://goodlearnerproject.com/logical-fallacies.html
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